I grew up with Theravāda Buddhism and, therefore, believed it to be the best form of Buddhism, with my own biases.
The Dhamma I have read and listened to for many decades is already embedded in my heart and consciousness, and it seems impossible for me to adopt any other belief system.
Nevertheless, I am still curious about how Buddhism developed multiple branches.
I found that Theravāda is one of the oldest surviving schools of Buddhism. Many early Buddhist schools declined over time, and while some disappeared entirely, others influenced later traditions. Theravāda remains the most continuous lineage in terms of monastic discipline and preservation of early texts.
Mahayāna Buddhism arose later, influenced by cultural and societal needs, and it further divided into various branches. Zen Buddhism is one of these branches.
Human interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings are incredibly diverse. I am particularly interested in Zen because of its teaching stories and the writings of Thích Nhất Hạnh.
His writings and Zen stories soothed my mind years ago, long before I encountered the Dhamma talks of Mogok Sayadaw.
Across all Buddhist traditions, certain foundational teachings remain consistent: the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, and the Three Universal Seals — impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness or dukkha (dukkha), and non-self (anattā).
Every school also upholds the Threefold Training: moral conduct (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). The Five Precepts for lay followers, along with additional monastic precepts, fall under the first of these three: ethical conduct (sīla).
The Buddha understood that breaking the Five Precepts is a condition for people to go to lower realms, including hells, and he offered his teachings as a way to prevent it. Therefore, the Five Precepts serve as a universal ethical foundation across Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and its branches and they represent the simplest form of the moral framework shared by all schools.
Mahayāna interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings on compassion and non-harming have often led to vegetarian or near-vegetarian practices. In Theravāda, vegetarian monasteries exist, but interpretations vary.
The same diversity applies to gender equality. Mahayāna Buddhism has generally supported the ordination of women more actively than Theravāda.
In East Asian countries—especially China, Korea, and Vietnam—the Bhikkhunī lineages have endured to the present, preserving an unbroken tradition from ancient times. Their continued existence was instrumental in the revival of the Theravāda Bhikkhunī Sangha.
In 1996, history was made when the Theravāda Bhikkhunī Sangha was formally revived after nearly a millennium: in Sarnath, India, Sri Lankan women received full ordination with support from both Theravāda monks and Korean monastics. The revival was further expanded in February 1998 at a large international ordination in Bodh Gaya—organized by the Taiwanese Mahāyāna Fo Guang Shan order—where women from 23 countries were ordained under a shared Vinaya ceremony involving both Theravāda and Mahāyāna participants. Later that same year, 23 women in Sri Lanka received full Theravāda ordination, establishing the core of the modern Theravāda Bhikkhunī Sangha.
While this revival has achieved legal recognition in Sri Lanka, including a landmark Supreme Court ruling in 2025 mandating that Bhikkhunīs be issued national ID cards with the title “Bhikkhunī,” full monastic acceptance remains uneven across Theravāda countries. In Thailand, although the Bhikkhunī community continues to grow in size and visibility, the Sangha hierarchy has not formally recognized fully ordained Bhikkhunīs, and their official status remains limited. Nevertheless, the revival demonstrates the resilience and determination of women practitioners, supported both by Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions.
In Myanmar, there is a documented case of a Bhikkhunī (Saccavadi) who was ordained in Sri Lanka and later punished by the Sangha authorities when she returned. As a result, a Myanmar nun I know who trained in Sri Lanka said she does not even dare to consider ordination.
At one point, I aspired to become a Bhikkhunī, but in recent years I no longer wish to be one, nor do I care about the title.
I have come to understand that, according to the Buddha, enlightened beings—whether men or women—are all regarded as part of the Sangha. Titles and ordinations matter less than freedom from all suffering, which is ultimately more important.
The influences of human interpretation, the politics of religion, and self-interest on the Buddha’s teachings are all fascinating, yet I choose to focus on the positive aspects and I will continue expanding my understanding.
Sources
The Origin and Development of the Bhikkhuni Order: A Historical Analysis
A Landmark Ruling for the Buddhist world: Supreme Court of Sri Lanka Recognises Bhikkhuni Identity
Rooted like Teak: The Growing Strength of the Thai Bhikkhuni Sangha
© Dr. Tune. All rights reserved.
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